درس نامههای جدیدی که در آمریکا درباره “اصول علم اقتصاد” و به قلم نویسندگان معتبری چون منکیو و استیگلیتز درآمده، مورد تحسین همگان قرار گرفتهاند. از دلایل تحسین و ستایش این کتابها به وسیله مردم میتوان به روشن بودن آنها، استفاده محتاطانه از صورتگرایی و رنگهای درخشان و وجود عکسها و مقالههای روزنامهها اشاره کرد که جذابیت ظاهری خاصی به آنها بخشیدهاند. اما هدف این کتابها چیست؟ اینکه دانشجویان را متقاعد کند نوع خاصی از استدلال وجود دارد که به آن “استدلال اقتصادی” میگویند، میتوان به راحتی آن را درک کرد و از اعتبار جهانی نیز برخوردار است. این شیوه استدلال دو رکن اصلی دارد: یکی “قانون عرضه و تقاضا”؛ که زندگی روزمره خود تاکیدی است بر آن و دیگری این اصل است که بازار یک نظام “کارآمد” است- یعنی سازوکاری است که منابع را به بهترین نحو توزیع میکند. البته اصل کارآمدی نه یک حقیقت تجربی و نه یک باور است بلکه یک منطق ریاضی است و این درست همان چیزی است که باید به خوانندگان عرضه میشد. اما درعوض استدلال، دانشجویان با توصیفهای شاعرانه متعددی روبهرو میشوند، که یکی از آنها توصیف جذابی به نام “دست نامرئی” است. همگان میدانند که اقتصاددانان در مواردی با هم اختلاف نظر دارند؛ با این حال این کتب درسی سعی بر آن دارند تا به دانشجویان بفهمانند که این اختلافها بر سر مسائل جزئی است و در مورد مسائل بنیادی، نوعی توافق نظر عمومی به چشم میخورد. برای نمونه، استیگلیتز (۱۹۹۷)، فهرستی از گزارههایی مطرح میکند که ظاهرا همه اقتصاددانان با آن موافقاند. منکیو (۱۹۹۸) نیز فصل اول کتاب خود را تحت عنوان “ده اصل اقتصادی” نوشته است و با بدیهیانگاری این اصول، هرگونه بحث و یا عدم توافق بر سر آنها را منتفی میداند. در فصل دوم “تفکر همچون یک اقتصاددان” وی ده طرح را پیشنهاد میکند که همه با آن موافقاند. این درست است که هر دو کتاب بر وجود اختلاف نظر صحه میگذارند اما با تقسیمبندی آن براساس “ارزشها”ی مختلف و نه تفسسیرهای مختلف، بعد شناختشناسی مساله را عقیم میگذارند.
منکیو: “دست نامرئی جادویی”
منکیو در اولین فصل کتاب خود بیان میکند که:”در مجموع وجود بازارهای رقابتی راهی مناسب برای سامان بخشیدن به فعالیتهای اقتصادی است” و برای تائید این ادعا به “دست نامرئی” آدام اسمیت متوسل میشود. اقتصاددانی به نام اسمیت در کتاب خود، ثروت ملل، اظهار میکند (و این یکی از مشهورترین اظهارات اقتصادی است) که به نظر میرسد بنگاهها و افرادی که در یک بازار خاص مشارکت دارند، بهگونهای رفتار میکنند که انگار دستی نامرئی هدایت آنها و بازار را بر عهده دارد تا همگی نتایجی مثبت و مطلوب بهبار آورند. یکی از اهداف این درسنامه توضیح این مساله است که این دست نامرئی جادویی چگونه عمل میکند. با مطالعه علم اقتصاد، شما میآموزید که قیمتها ابزاری در دستان نامرئی است که با آن به اقتصاد نظم میبخشند (تاکید دوباره). با این حال، منکیو هیچ گاه توضیح نمیدهد که “این دست نامرئی” که قیمتها “ابزار” آناند واقعا چگونه کار میکند و اگر هم دستان کاملا مرئی دلالان و واسطهها را در نظر داشته، هیچ حرفی از آن نمیزند. در تمام کتاب به تحلیل تعادل عمومی ارو-دبرو که به عقیده بسیاری از اقتصاددانان نئوکلاسیک، معادل ریاضی “دست نامرئی” است، هیچ اشارهای نمیشود. درعوض دانشجویان با گفتههای اغراقآمیزی مانند “ظرفیت چشمگیر دست نامرئی در سامان بخشیدن به اقتصاد” روبرو هستند.
اعجاز ساموئلسون و نوردهاوس و “فنر” استیگلیتز
ساموئلوسن و نوردهاوس (۱۹۹۸) هم برای پاسخ به پرسش “بازار چیست؟”، دست نامرئی را وسط میکشند، “اعمال و اهداف” افراد مختلف “بهطور غیبی و بهوسیله نظامی از قیمت و بازار هماهنگ می شود”. البته ساموئلسون و نوردهاوس ترجیح می دهند به جای “جادو”ی منکیو معجزه را به کار برند. آنان می نویسند “یک معجزه واقعی آن است که کل این نظام بدون هیچگونه اعمال نظر و هدایت از طرف فرد خاصی می مند.” و “دولت در بخش اعظم زندگی اقتصادی ما مداخلهای ندارد و اینکه یکی از عجایب جامعه ما است”. با آنکه “کمبودهایی” در اقتصاد بازار مشاهده می شود اما ویژگیهای اعجاز آنگیز آن است که اهمیت دارد. استیگلیتز به اندازه ساموئلسون و نوردهاوس شیفته این موضوع نیست، اما اصل حرف آنها یکی است. نوآوری او در استفاده از استعاره است. وی در توضیح اینکه بازار چگونه عمل میکند ، “وزنه ای که از یک فنر آویزان است” را جایگزین دسته نامرئی می کند که به تدریج از دامنه حرکت آن کاسته می شود تا به تعادل برسد. استگلیتز هم مانند منکیو و ساموئلسون و نوردهاوس، برای توضیح چگونگی عملکرد بازار از اصطلاحات اقتصادی استفاده نمی کند.
بازار چیست؟
همه این درسنامهها در توضیح چگونگی تعیین قیمتها در “بازار” و چگونگی علکرد بازار ناکام اند. قیمتها از کجا میآیند؟ چه کسی آنها را تعیین می کند؟ نوسان آنها چگونه است؟ هیچ پاسخی به این پرسشها داده نمیشود، آنها هم درحالیکه “دست نامرئی” به وسیله نظام قیمتگذاری عمل میکند. وقتی منکیو مثالی عینی مطرح میکند و این بحث منطقی را پیش میکشد که “یک فروشنده دلایل کمی برای فروش کالای خود زیر قیمت جاری دارد و اگر هم بالاتر بفروشد، مصرف کنندگان کالای مورد نظر را از جای دیگری تهیه می کنند.” آیا این واضح نیست؟ اقتصاد آن قدر ساده است که … اما پرسش چگونگی تعیین قیمت، از جمله همین قیمت جاری، هنوز هم بی جواب می ماند. ساموئلسون و نوردهاوس هم روش مشابهی را به کار می برند، اما با استفاده از استعاره ای متفاوت. آنان می نویسند:”در یک بازار، قیمتها بین تولید کننده و مصرف کننده هماهنگی ایجاد می کنند … قیمتها تسمه گرداننده سازوکار بازارند”. البته مانند دیگر درسنامه ها، ساموئلسون و نوردهاوس هم از ارائه پاسخی به این پرسش اساسی که “قیمتها چگونه تعیین میشوند؟” طفره میروند.
نتیجهگیری
در این کتابها چنین فرض شده که بازار ابزاری کارآمد است که به وسیله دست نامرئی هدایت میشود، اما به این پرسش اساسی که قیمتهای بازار چگونه تعیین می شوند و چگونه انتخابهای فردی با هم هماهنگ میشوند توجهی نشده است. فقط وقتی که بحث نواقص بازار (عدم تقارن اطلاعاتی، آثار جانبی، کالاهای عمومی و غیره) پیش می آید، آنان دلایل جالبی اقامه می کنند. بهنظر نویسندگان “راه حل” مشخصی برای این قبیل مشکلات وجود ندارد. در عوض نتیجه به فاکتورهایی که در نظر گرفته میشوند، اهمیت نسبی نیروها و منافعی که در کارند و در بسیاری از موارد، معیارها و ارزشهایی که مردم قبول دارند، بستگی دارد. عجیب است که این مباحث و اظهار نظرها بدون آنکه از “ابزارهای” مشهور موجود در اقتصاد خرد استفاده شود، مطرح میشوند. اما باید دانست که خود این “ابزارها” هم فقط بر یک دنیای تخیلی انطباق دارند و با دنیایی که ما در آن زندگی میکنیم ناسازگارند.
این متن از کتاب اقتصاد پسامتعارف انتخاب و ترجمه شده است. البته پیشتر نیز یک نفر که نامش را به خاطر ندارم آن را در نشریه کتاب ماه علوم اجتماعی ترجمه و چاپ کرده است.
محمد رضا
من سر حرف و وعدهام در مورد علل بحران هستم. ولی واقعا مورد سختیه. میترسم حرفی بزنم که نشه جمع و جورش کرد. فعلا فکر میکنم باید جدایی از بازار رو گره زد به بحران.یعنی دلیل رو در اون دید. حالا چجوری خیلی روشن نیست برام. دنبال دلیلی کلیتر از اشتباه چند رییس بانک هستم. ولی دلایلی که نه در جهت سست کردن پایههای اقتصاد بلکه در جهت استحکام بخشی به اونةا باشن. واضحه که میشه از هر دو طرف استدلالاتی چید.البته خیلی هم بدون ایده نیستم در این زمینه که ایشالا فرصتی شد باهاتون حتما در میون میذارم. گفتم چیزی بگم که نشون بدم از موضوع جدا نشدم.
موفق باشی
“بازارها چگونه کار میکنند؟ چه کاری میتوانند بکنند؟ و چه کارهایی نمیتوانند بکنند؟ اینها سوالاتی است که در این کتاب بررسی میشوند.”
این بخشی از مقدمه کتابیه که در حال ترجمه اش هستم و شنبه ها در اندیشه اقتصاد دنیای اقتصاد داره چاپ میشه.
۲۰۲۴۹۷۹ beers on the wall. sck was here
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I couldn’t resist commenting
Zune and iPod: Most people compare the Zune to the Touch, but after seeing how slim and surprisingly small and light it is, I consider it to be a rather unique hybrid that combines qualities of both the Touch and the Nano. It’s very colorful and lovely OLED screen is slightly smaller than the touch screen, but the player itself feels quite a bit smaller and lighter. It weighs about 2/3 as much, and is noticeably smaller in width and height, while being just a hair thicker.
Zune and iPod: Most people compare the Zune to the Touch, but after seeing how slim and surprisingly small and light it is, I consider it to be a rather unique hybrid that combines qualities of both the Touch and the Nano. It’s very colorful and lovely OLED screen is slightly smaller than the touch screen, but the player itself feels quite a bit smaller and lighter. It weighs about 2/3 as much, and is noticeably smaller in width and height, while being just a hair thicker.
The Zune concentrates on being a Portable Media Player. Not a web browser. Not a game machine. Maybe in the future it’ll do even better in those areas, but for now it’s a fantastic way to organize and listen to your music and videos, and is without peer in that regard. The iPod’s strengths are its web browsing and apps. If those sound more compelling, perhaps it is your best choice.
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Between me and my husband we’ve owned more MP3 players over the years than I can count, including Sansas, iRivers, iPods (classic & touch), the Ibiza Rhapsody, etc. But, the last few years I’ve settled down to one line of players. Why? Because I was happy to discover how well-designed and fun to use the underappreciated (and widely mocked) Zunes are.
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Sorry for the huge review, but I’m really loving the new Zune, and hope this, as well as the excellent reviews some other people have written, will help you decide if it’s the right choice for you.
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I’ll gear this review to 2 types of people: current Zune owners who are considering an upgrade, and people trying to decide between a Zune and an iPod. (There are other players worth considering out there, like the Sony Walkman X, but I hope this gives you enough info to make an informed decision of the Zune vs players other than the iPod line as well.)
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The new Zune browser is surprisingly good, but not as good as the iPod’s. It works well, but isn’t as fast as Safari, and has a clunkier interface. If you occasionally plan on using the web browser that’s not an issue, but if you’re planning to browse the web alot from your PMP then the iPod’s larger screen and better browser may be important.
Apple now has Rhapsody as an app, which is a great start, but it is currently hampered by the inability to store locally on your iPod, and has a dismal 64kbps bit rate. If this changes, then it will somewhat negate this advantage for the Zune, but the 10 songs per month will still be a big plus in Zune Pass’ favor.
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Between me and my hubby we have possessed more Audio players through the years than I’m able to count, including Sansas, iRivers, apple ipods (classic & touch), the Ibiza Rhapsody, etc. But, the final couple of years I have been feeling relaxed to 1 type of gamers. Why? Because I had been pleased to uncover how well-designed and fun to make use of the underappreciated (and broadly mocked) Zunes are.
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Hands down, Apple’s app store wins by a mile. It’s a huge selection of all sorts of apps vs a rather sad selection of a handful for Zune. Microsoft has plans, especially in the realm of games, but I’m not sure I’d want to bet on the future if this aspect is important to you. The iPod is a much better choice in that case.
This is getting a bit more subjective, but I much prefer the Zune Marketplace. The interface is colorful, has more flair, and some cool features like ‘Mixview’ that let you quickly see related albums, songs, or other users related to what you’re listening to. Clicking on one of those will center on that item, and another set of “neighbors” will come into view, allowing you to navigate around exploring by similar artists, songs, or users. Speaking of users, the Zune “Social” is also great fun, letting you find others with shared tastes and becoming friends with them. You then can listen to a playlist created based on an amalgamation of what all your friends are listening to, which is also enjoyable. Those concerned with privacy will be relieved to know you can prevent the public from seeing your personal listening habits if you so choose.
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Hands down, Apple’s app store wins by a mile. It’s a huge selection of all sorts of apps vs a rather sad selection of a handful for Zune. Microsoft has plans, especially in the realm of games, but I’m not sure I’d want to bet on the future if this aspect is important to you. The iPod is a much better choice in that case.
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Apple now has Rhapsody as an app, which is a great start, but it is currently hampered by the inability to store locally on your iPod, and has a dismal 64kbps bit rate. If this changes, then it will somewhat negate this advantage for the Zune, but the 10 songs per month will still be a big plus in Zune Pass’ favor.
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Apple now has Rhapsody as an app, which is a great start, but it is currently hampered by the inability to store locally on your iPod, and has a dismal 64kbps bit rate. If this changes, then it will somewhat negate this advantage for the Zune, but the 10 songs per month will still be a big plus in Zune Pass’ favor.
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The new Zune browser is surprisingly good, but not as good as the iPod’s. It works well, but isn’t as fast as Safari, and has a clunkier interface. If you occasionally plan on using the web browser that’s not an issue, but if you’re planning to browse the web alot from your PMP then the iPod’s larger screen and better browser may be important.
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I’ll gear this review to 2 types of people: current Zune owners who are considering an upgrade, and people trying to decide between a Zune and an iPod. (There are other players worth considering out there, like the Sony Walkman X, but I hope this gives you enough info to make an informed decision of the Zune vs players other than the iPod line as well.)
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Zune and iPod: Most people compare the Zune to the Touch, but after seeing how slim and surprisingly small and light it is, I consider it to be a rather unique hybrid that combines qualities of both the Touch and the Nano. It’s very colorful and lovely OLED screen is slightly smaller than the touch screen, but the player itself feels quite a bit smaller and lighter. It weighs about 2/3 as much, and is noticeably smaller in width and height, while being just a hair thicker.
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Between me and my husband we’ve owned more MP3 players over the years than I can count, including Sansas, iRivers, iPods (classic & touch), the Ibiza Rhapsody, etc. But, the last few years I’ve settled down to one line of players. Why? Because I was happy to discover how well-designed and fun to use the underappreciated (and widely mocked) Zunes are.
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